Harmony Techniques That Arrangers Often Forget About

There are so many options when writing a chord progression that it can be hard to remember every technique you have access to. Especially those that you may have learnt years ago. This was definitely the case for me when I started arranging for clients. Coming straight out of university I was obsessed with having as many extensions and alterations as possible. Something which sounded great for certain types of jazz, but maybe wasn’t the best option when approaching other styles. The problem was that my initial arranging clients were primarily commercial vocalists who didn’t want me to stray too far from the source material. What that translated to practically was I couldn’t use my fancy altered dominants, and most of the time couldn’t use any extensions whatsoever. Of course, that lesson was learnt the hard way through multiple revisions.

So I was faced with a dilemma. I wanted to add my spin to the chord progressions but couldn’t use the techniques I loved using. That’s when I remembered there were other methods I could turn to that might work. You see, in the jazz world harmony primarily gets color from extensions. Yes there are other techniques at play, but extensions do a considerable amount of the lifting. Whereas in earlier types of music the composers were restricted to triads and 7th chords so had to come up with new techniques to achieve color. Many of these older techniques have actually also been used in the pop music space. As a result, where extensions and jazz harmony might be a bit over the top for commercial arrangements, the older classical techniques can be used to add harmonic interest without feeling overwhelming to non jazz audiences. So I tried some of the techniques, and to my surprise they worked!

You’re probably wondering what those techniques were. Well it was a mixture of functional substitution, modal interchange, and a few chords that aren’t as common these days such as the neapolitan and augmented 6th. Not only was it understanding each of these individual techniques, but also pairing them with the idea that listeners can tolerate dissonance if chromatic tones are introduced smartly. Of course every chart was different, and for the most part I used these techniques in moderation based on the context. But more importantly, I immediately saw a shift in the reception of the arrangements. My clients enjoyed the sophistication that the techniques brought while also feeling that the harmony didn’t stray too far from the original material. It was even more successful when I was able to factor in the emotion presented by the lyrics and capture that in the chord progression.

If you’ve been following along with the other harmony resources on this site, this topic works as a nice expansion on the previous topic where I unpack functional harmony. If you aren’t familiar with the concept, I would highly recommend reading through that resource before continuing as I will be building off a lot of the terminology established on that page.

Minor Scales and Why They Are Better Than Major Scales

When I was introduced to music in the classroom it all began with learning the major scale. As I moved through school and into university, there was always a preference for the major scale even though there were so many other options to learn about. But as soon as I started diving into the harmony techniques related to the minor scale, I found it that much more interesting. Maybe that was because my learning had been oversaturated with major keys, or maybe there was something a bit more provocative about minor keys. To my ears I heard far more emotion in minor keys, most likely due to the increased chromaticism found in the scale. 

Unlike major scales which have a fixed seven notes, the variation of 6ths and 7ths of the minor scale provide considerably more diatonic chord options. Most of which have more dissonance and chromaticism. Instead of seven different diatonic chords, the minor scale has thirteen when you pool together the three minor variations: natural, harmonic, and melodic minor. Each of which can be viewed through the lens of functional harmony and be assigned one of the three chord functions.

Similar to major keys, you can create minor chord progressions using these functions. But we can go a step further and use a new technique called modal interchange to access even more chord options. Modal interchange is a type of substitution where you borrow chords of the same scale degree from parallel key centers. Unlike relative keys, such as how A minor is the relative minor to C major, a parallel key is one which shares the same root note. A good example is C major and C minor. To use modal interchange, you simply have to pick a chord in your progression and swap it for the chord built on the same scale degree in the parallel key. For instance, if you had an Fmaj IV chord in the key of C major, you could substitute it for an Fmin iv chord from the parallel key of C minor. As a result, the chord progression will capture some of the qualities and emotion that is found in the parallel key. 

It’s important to take the melody note into consideration when using any substitution technique. Typically, whenever you reharmonize a chord, make sure that the new chord includes the melody note. Otherwise it can sometimes sound more dissonant and change the qualities of the chord you were intending on using. 

One of the most recognizable examples of modal interchange can be found in Mariah Carey’s All I Want For Christmas. The first three bars of the verse establish the key of G major by going G (I) - G/B (I) - C (IV). However, in bar 4 an Am7b5/Eb is presented which doesn’t come from the key of G major. To justify the chord through functional harmony we have to look to the parallel key of G minor where Am7b5 is the ii chord. What we can see is that this chord has been borrowed through modal interchange to add more color to the progression. Can you hear the darkness and other qualities of G minor the chord adds? 

All I Want For Christmas

Mariah Carey

This particular usage of modal interchange has become by far the most popular in Western music and has even been termed the “nostalgia” note due to its heavy usage alongside symbolism of looking back into the past (whether that be through lyrics or acting). It’s likely that Mariah Carey was drawing inspiration from other festive songs such as White Christmas by Irving Berlin which also makes use of modal interchange.

Composers such as Irving Berlin wrote considerably for Tin Pan Alley, stage shows which were an early form of the broadway shows we have today. Through this medium, they used the harmonic vocabulary of diatonic music that came before them and integrated modal interchange heavily into their compositions. As a result, broadway music, and any music that has been inspired by it usually includes some level of modal interchange. 

White Christmas

Irving Berlin

Not Your Common Chord Options

In addition to the chords of both the major and minor scales, there exist two other chords which have been included into the functional harmony vocabulary even though they aren’t necessarily drawn from a diatonic key. They are called the neapolitan and augmented 6th. Both have a pre-dominant function and help to introduce chromaticism into a chord progression.

Neapolitan

With roots in the 18th century, the neapolitan chord came to prominence through a group of Italian opera composers. Unlike diatonic chords, the Neapolitan is a unique chord which is a major triad built off of the flattened second degree of a scale. For example, in the key of C Major it would be a Db major chord. Often in Western classical music it is used in first inversion, however it can be used in any voicing configuration. Due to neapolitan chords introducing a considerable amount of chromatic tones to a key center, they must be handled with care to avoid creating the feeling of polytonality or modulation. The most common approach is to use the chord in conjunction with the modal interchange technique, where the chromatic tones are introduced and resolved slowly.

Although the neapolitan is not commonly found in jazz, there is another similar chord created through tritone substitution which is also built on the flattened second. By substituting the V chord, you can create a dominant 7th chord on the bII. However, the primary difference between this chord and a neapolitan is that the neapolitan has a pre-dominant function, and if a 7th was added it would be a Major 7th, whereas the substituted chord has a dominant function and has a Dominant 7th quality.

Augmented 6th

Created sometime during the Renaissance, the augmented 6th chord has been a popular option throughout the Baroque, Classical, and Romantic eras of Western Classical music. The chord itself can be confusing to understand coming from a modern day theoretical standpoint as it is not an augmented chord in the way we know today. Instead of being a major triad with a raised 5th, the augmented 6th chord is actually a dominant 7th chord with the name coming from the interval between the root and 7th being viewed as an augmented 6th (a major 6th raised by a semitone/half-step) and not a minor 7th. In the Western classical world there are three different variations commonly used:

Italian 6th - a dominant 7th chord using the root, 3rd, and 7th

French 6th - a dominant 7th chord using the root, 3rd, #4th, and 7th

German 6th - a dominant 7th chord using the root, 3rd, 5th, and 7th

In jazz however, the augmented 6th is thought of in a different manner. If you combine a specific secondary dominant chord with the tritone substitution technique, you can achieve a dominant 7th chord built on the flattened sixth of a major scale. Using either the jazz interpretation, or the classical, yields the same result with the chord still having a pre-dominant function.

One Last Technique

Before we talk about how to use neapolitan and augmented 6th chords, there’s a substitution technique which will help us smoothly integrate both into a chord progression. I like to call it, functional substitution. The technique is similar to other forms of substitution in the way that it helps provide logical reharmonization choices. Fortunately, it is quite simple to understand and use. Functional substitution is when you replace a chord with another chord of the same function. For example you could substitute the ii (PD) with the IV (PD), or the V (D) with the vii (D) etc.

Additionally, this technique can be used alongside modal interchange to create some very interesting options. For example, if you had a chord progression in the key of C major, the D minor ii chord (PD) could be substituted with the F minor iv chord (PD) from the parallel C minor scale.

Functional substitution is a fantastic way of adding harmonic contrast between repeated sections in a subtle way. The difference between a D minor chord and an F major chord is not that large but offers a slight shift which can help you put your own spin on an arrangement. I find myself using this a lot in combination with inversions on commercial charts where there might be two or three verses or choruses all with the same chord progression.

Polite Chromaticism

The unique quality about all of the techniques mentioned so far (as well as secondary dominant chords) is that they introduce a level of chromaticism into a chord progression. If you’re not careful with a certain chord, it can add a lot of unwanted dissonance and completely change the overall feel of a progression. This is especially true for songs which use fewer chords and may feel wrong given the context.

Now there is nothing wrong with adding dissonance, in fact dissonance usually helps provide depth and interest to a chord progression. We just need to make sure we use it tastefully. Sometimes that might mean writing something quite shocking and abrupt, and sometimes it means introducing a passing note in an inner voice. Context is the key to whether dissonance works (and of course your client’s opinion if it is for a commission).

Abrupt dissonance is somewhat easier to create as it is simply putting a highly chromatic chord where you want tension. However, the more subtle situations can be difficult as it can involve introducing tones and resolving them over time. So where do chromatic tones come from and are they all equal to each other? 

In functional harmony, chromaticism is usually incorporated through various techniques which pull notes from other key centers and place them within a diatonic progression. The further around the cycle of 4ths/5ths the notes are pulled from, the more outside and dissonant they will sound. For example, in the key of C major, the adjacent keys are G major (which introduces F#) and F major (which introduces Bb). Chords from either one of those keys which make use of the F# or Bb respectively, will be dissonant to the key of C major but not as much as those from keys further around the cycle. If we jump to the other side of the cycle to the key of Db major (which introduces Bb, Eb, Ab, Db, and Gb), any chords which make use of notes like Db or Gb will sound considerably more dissonant.

Although they may be dissonant, introducing chords from far away keys is definitely not a bad thing and can lead to some amazing musical moments. The key to making them work subtly is by introducing the chromatic notes one at a time where possible. Sometimes this may not be possible but where it can be done the dissonance won’t be as obvious to the listener. 

In a major key, any technique we’ve discussed so far, including neapolitan, augmented 6th, modal interchange, and secondary dominant chords, will add at least one chromatic tone with some adding multiple. Taking a progression from the key of C major, we can quite quickly see what keys these options come from, and how much dissonance they may introduce.

With the chromatic tones each technique introduces in mind, let’s have a look at how we might be able to subtly introduce some of the techniques on this page. 

To begin with, we’ll start with a chord progression in C major and build on top of it. C (I) - Dm (ii) - G (V) - C (I) should do just fine. Immediately a great option which presents itself is to substitute the ii chord through functional substitution to another PD function chord. In this case I’ll use the neapolitan to introduce a lot of dissonance. Before adding more chords to mellow out the added chromaticism from the Db chord, have a listen to the immediate difference substituting the chord makes.

You can clearly hear that the new Db chord makes it feel almost polytonal due to how far away the key is from C major. If this is the effect you are looking for, then don’t go any further, but if you are looking to tone down the dissonance there needs to be a few more chords added between the C and Db.

We know that the neapolitan adds two new chromatic tones Db and Ab, so to reduce the impact we need to find a way to introduce them one at a time. The easiest way to do so is by adding a chord which only adds the Ab prior to the neapolitan. In this case, that chord could be F minor, which is borrowed from the parallel C minor through modal interchange. Another way to lower the dissonance of the neapolitan could be to put it in an inversion. By having the Db as the root note, it brings more attention to the note. In first inversion (Db/F) the impact would also be reduced. Here’s what combining both the F min and neapolitan in inversion sound like.

Already it’s starting to sound more tame. Due to this example being in a vacuum instead of the context of a whole piece, when it hits the F minor chord you lose the sense of the key of C major. Whereas in reality, it’s likely the arrangement has been reinforcing the home key for sometime at this point and the introduction of an F minor chord will be a point of difference. In such cases, it may be worthwhile to set up the dissonance even more so by putting another diatonic chord between the C and F minor. Something like a IV chord would dilute the dissonance another step if needed.

With the dissonance of the neapolitan now being introduced slowly we also need to look at how it is resolved. Quick resolutions can feel great but sometimes they can feel odd depending on the style and context. In jazz, there is an abundance of chromaticism so resolving multiple notes at a time feels normal. Whereas in pop music it can sometimes bring too much attention to the harmony. In this instance when you hear the resolution from the neapolitan to the G chord does it feel too noticeable? If so, then you should try to resolve the chromatic tones one at a time in a similar process to how they were introduced. You don’t have to use the same chords, just the same idea of taking care of one chromatic note at a time. Instead of expanding more on the current example, let’s look at introducing an augmented 6th chord as well as resolving the dissonant tones over time.

Could you hear how the dissonance was slowly added and removed? I followed the exact same process to the neapolitan example but this time resolved each of the dissonant tones one at a time. Remember, you don’t have to be this cautious in your own writing, I’m only going over this so that you have the tools in case you want to add these sorts of dissonances subtly. 

The Takeaway

Writing chord progressions might be my favorite part of arranging. There’s just something awesome about finding a chord which fits perfectly with the mood you are trying to create. However, sometimes it can be difficult to find the right chord when you have certain constraints and can’t rely on your go to methods. In my experience, the techniques discussed here are often forgotten about even though they offer a lot of color and can be the solution in a lot of cases. I personally find myself using the two different substitution techniques the most, but all of the methods can lead to amazing results.

Try mixing these techniques with others like secondary dominants and the chord resolution formula. There are thousands of different combinations you can come up with, each of which sounding unique.

Now that we have all the tools, the next step will be to look at moving between different keys through modulation. Something which is a lot easier with the techniques we have already explored. Once you’ve mastered modulation, you’ll know all of the secrets to functional harmony and it will be time to spice things up with jazz harmony!